Motivation and Emotion Worksheet Essay

Discuss the following as a team and provide a brief summary of the each discussion. The word count for individual answers may vary but your responses should total 500- to 800-words for the entire worksheet. 1. Describe three approaches to motivation. Explain how each approach affects motivation. The first being instincts which are the patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned. People as well as animals are preprogrammed when born with behavioral and survival instincts. The second being incentive approach. I feel that I’m more motivated when there is some incentive involved because I know at the end of the day I am going to be rewarded for my assistance. The third would be arousal approach where each person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity to keep you consistently motivated. 2. Theorists vary on why we experience emotions. Discuss at least two different theories related to emotional experiences. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are responsible for emotions. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions. Neurological theories states that the activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. 3. Choose one positive and one negative emotion related to being a student. Provide one example for each of how these emotions may affect your performance in class. Positive emotion from being in school would be your satisfaction on completion of a course. You give yourself the emotion of complete success. Negative for me is withdrawing a course and having to retake it. Not only in your mind do you feel like a failure but you also have to revisit that state of emotion when you’re retaking the course again. 4. Summarize two theories of intelligence. What are the benefits and drawbacks to intelligence testing? Benefits to intelligence testing can be used as a great tool when making decisions regarding which careers to pursue and which to avoid. Professional organizations can use intelligence testing to ensure that the right person is being placed in the right job. As with professors/instructors they can use it to help in identifying which and what students need that extra help. An added benefit of the partitioning of IQ tests into aptitude tests is that intelligence testing can now be used by career counselors to guide students in their future career choices. Drawbacks to intelligence testing that is limits potential for mostly students both as kids and adults. You’re also limited to the types of intelligence. A fact that I found out after doing my research was that IQ test only results in a single number as an overall score for intelligence. The test does not show an accurate result of what people’s strengths are. Two people can have the same score with very different streng ths and weaknesses.

Gentlemen’s Magazine

5 You have been approached by the editor of Gentlemen’s Magazine to carry out a research study. The magazine has been unsuccessful in attracting shoe manufacturers as advertisers. When the sales force tried to secure advertising from shoe manufacturers, they were told men’s clothing stores are a small and dying segment of their business. Since Gentlemen’s Magazine goes chiefly to men’s clothing stores, the manufacturers reasoned that it was, therefore, not a good vehicle for their advertising. The editor believes that a survey (via mail questionnaire) of men’s clothing stores in the United States will probably show that these stores are important outlets for men’s shoes and are not declining in importance as shoe outlets. He asks you to develop a proposal for the study and submit it to him. Develop the management-research question hierarchy that will help you to develop a specific proposal. The initial Research: -First we need to address the management’s concern. How to market Gentlemen’s Magazine to shoe manufactures. -How profitable is shoe manufactures? -What types of sales sources does shoe manufactures uses the most? -What percentage of clothing stores provide shoes sales? -What is the percentage of demand of men shoes? -How profitable are sales of shoes? -How profitable are men shoes going to be to Gentlemen’s magazine? -To customers: oHow many times a year do they purchase men’s shoes? oHow many pair of shows do they purchas e when they do purchase their shoes? What type of men shoes are they more likely to purchase? oWhat are the preferred colors? 5. Compute the mean of the following sample values: 16. 25, 12. 91, and 14. 58. 16. 25+12. 91+14. 58=43. 74 43. 74/314. 58 21. What is sampling error? Sampling error is the estimated error caused by the observation of a sample instead of the entire population. Could the value of the sampling error be zero? Only when the sample is the entire population the sampling error can be zero. If it were zero, what would this mean? If the sample error is zero that mean the entire population was the sample. 22. List the reasons for sampling. Give an example of each reason for sampling. Answer: The inability to sample the entire population. Ex: Trying to get the entire population's hair color. 34. Information from the American Institute of Insurance indicates the mean amount of lifeinsurance per household in the United States is $110,000. This distribution follows thenormal distribution with a standard deviation of $40,000. . If we select a random sample of 50 households, what is the standard error of the mean? Answer: Standard error: 40,000/sqrt [50] = 8000/sqrt[2] or about 5656. 85 b. What is the expected shape of the distribution of the sample mean? Answer: The data should to be a normal distribution, therefore the shape would be â€Å"bell-shaped†. c. What is the likelihood of selecting a sample with a mean of at least $112,000? Answer: P(X ; 112,000) = 1 – P(X 100,000) = 1 – P(X

Information System and League Tables Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Information System and League Tables - Essay Example Public administration is a complex and difficult process. Before a public service is delivered, it most likely has passed through several stages and agencies that composed the bureaucracy before it is delivered to the end user. Leslie Budd (2009) provided a specific benefit when she explained that e-government is primarily implemented in order to achieve economic efficiency, as information and communications technologies such as the IS can reduce the amount of bureaucratic procedures in public administrations. (p74) Traunmuller (2004), for his part, pointed out that bureaucracy imposes on its environment its rules, its operating modes and it transfers the management of complexity to the end user that is why, in the effort of governments to modernize, a transition towards end-user oriented approach is adopted. (p82) Crucial to this initiative is the solution for the problem of interoperability that characterizes bureaucracies. The issue about making public service easier to the public is a daunting task when services involve numerous agencies with their own respective mini bureaucracies. IS solved this dilemma. According to Traunmuller, this is achieved in the three stages that are crucial for the concept of e-government. To cite these stages:Anytime, Anywhere: the first of the process in electronic administration that involves the linking of different information held by different actors. IS solves this dilemma by providing the application by which the complex information system can be collected.

Culture in the period of Renaissance Assignment - 2

Culture in the period of Renaissance - Assignment Example According to the research findings, Florentine Francesco Petrarch says that â€Å"neither exhortations to virtue nor the argument of approaching death should deliver us from literature; for in a good mind it neither excites the love of virtue, and dissipates, nor at least diminishes, the fear of death†. He criticized the rewarding of studies as he viewed this as a mere need to fulfill one’s self-confidence instead of gaining wisdom through learning. Studies can help even the weak mind in the society. Learning and studying should be given equal chances and not be left to the ones that are thought to be powerful and elite. He gives an example of Cato, he says that Cato struggled with literature; he started with Latin literature when he was young and later Greek literature when he became old. The attitude towards literature or studies changed in the Renaissance period, Petrarch is even devout fully says in the letter to Boccaccio that even the world does not accuse Paul th at his head will be turned by studies. During the period of Renaissance, the great cultural figures were men. Before the time of renaissance came women had no place in the society. The attitude of women changed during this time and some women epitomized the strength of a woman. It during this time that some women were able to produce works, achieve recognition, and defend women against male detractors. Cultural production was enhanced on the part educating the girl child. There was a very negative attitude of men towards women that educating women would corrupt their morals. She says that some men don’t base their arguments on reason, and for that matter they are wrong. Men opposing the ideology of educating a woman are viewed as the not very clever men avoiding competition from women. The attitude of women empowerment that was achieved during the renaissance time has changed the perception of educating women, though there is still some resistance even today from some men.

Econ Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Econ - Essay Example He is known for his works which include: A Discourse on the Commonwealth of this Realm of England (1549). Sir William Petty considered taxes, land and labor as the most important resources of the growth and acquisition of national income. He came up with several ways to optimize the collection and generation of taxes while being fair to every individual. He believed and recommended that the taxes collected should be just equal to the nation’s expenditure. Petty was against poll taxes and the unequal taxation of the poor excessively (Petty p30). He came up with strategies to raise taxes fairly. He suggested that imports should be taxed, but only in a way that they would be at the same level with the locally produced products. He also began turning his concerns towards income distribution and the relative value created by the contributions; He was talking of diminishing returns on land relative to their distance from the market (Petty p84). This was a result of the initiation of the idea that rent on land was a surplus above wage payments. He also initiated the â€Å"labor theory of value†. This stated that the value of goods produced should have been determined by the number amount of time the labor went into it. The Basic theme of The Discourse on the Commonwealth of this Realm of England was an attack on debasement which Sir Thomas Smith was openly against; this even led to his exile. He claimed that debasement was responsible for social unrest, high prices and inflation, and the biggest losers were fixed income earners. In his works he claimed that the King was one of the biggest losers from the high prices caused by debasement, since it adds immediately to the king’s revenue and before the rise of prices comes, contrarily the king is the prime beneficiary of monetary measures of inflation and debasement (Rothbard p67). Smith was a mercantilist as seen by his

High Tech Computer Corporation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

High Tech Computer Corporation - Research Paper Example The products it offers are of high quality yet they are available at affordable prices for the middle-class earners; a population that is very high in the world today. Today, one can rightfully say that the HTC Corporation is the top of the list when it comes to highly innovative companies in the world today. HTC Corporation was founded in 1997 when Cher Mi Wang partnered with HT Cho and Peter Chou. Their main of coming together was to form a company that would be in a position to manufacture phones that would serve as communication gadgets as well as personal assistant to the users (General books, 2010). The project did not kick off as planned and the partners ended up utilizing a lot of capital while incurring losses. The Wang family was by then one of the richest families in Taiwan and their riches came in handy once the partnership went flat broke. They were given the permission to use the wealth to acquire whatever it was that they needed to bring the company back on its feet. Cher Mi Wang invested heavily in the improvement of engineering and design sections of the company as they were more wanting. With the company up and running again, the partners decided to add to their objectives to adapt to the market. They decided that apart from manufacturing the phones that they initially planned to manufacture, they would also produce products for other brands. The new plan resulted in the manufacturing of a mobile computer in 2000 for the Compaq Corporation. HP also hired HTC Corporation to manufacture a mobile computer for them after seeing the success of the one produced for Compaq. HTC attracted the attention of big wireless providers such as Vodafone, Orange, Sprint Nextel and Verizon Wireless when it produced the first pocket personal computers (PCs) that operated under the Microsoft operating systems.

Hypothesis Identification Article Analysis Essay - 1

Hypothesis Identification Article Analysis - Essay Example t nearly nine in 10 respondents are in debt, with car payments, credit card balances, home equity loans, lines of credit and student loans as the most common debt types. Greenwald’s research was also used to emphasize that Americans are in â€Å"debt denial† wherein certain sectors would not consider home equity lines of credit, borrowing money from a family member, late bills and credit card balances as debts. In light of these, the article highlighted the American reliance in debt. McGuire, then went on citing Kerry Geurkink’s statement that stressed the failed efforts at educating Americans on properly handling their finances. The point made was that, Americans are entangled in debt because most think that it is within their control while a growing number acknowledged â€Å"irresponsibility† as a factor. This argument further explored how Americans confuse, consciously and subconsciously, â€Å"wants† from â€Å"needs.† This, for McGuire, touched base with the attitudes of entitlements that force people to consider things such as the internet and cable TV as necessities. There is a stinging criticism in the final words of the article that said: â€Å"People seem to be unsatisfied†¦ although people have more.† In line with the acceptance of the hypothesis that was previously put forward, McGuire admonished her readers that people should stop thinking in monthly payments and that they should make intelligent decisions with their purchases, expenditures and debt acquisition. She also agreed with Geurkink that people should save and pay off debt at the same time as retirement now lasts for decades and that Americans are expected to foot more of the bill amid a rise in the â€Å"cost of higher education, medical care and, until recently, housing – far outpacing inflation. All in all, this article is a report more than a first-hand study. It perused other studies in order to present the points that the author wanted to convey. Nonetheless, there is the hypothesis

Short Stories Reflecting Issues in Marriage Essay

Short Stories Reflecting Issues in Marriage - Essay Example In addition, the stories act as peripheries outlining the boundaries of what ambitious women should indulge in, to avoid disgrace or even death. The two stories speak of their main characters’ dreams and aspirations and vividly describe them as they think about their respective dreams. The main characters are both women, married and facing different dilemmas but somehow are related, considering that their problems are about their desires. To Chopin’s Mrs. Mallard, her dream was the satisfaction of an emotional and psychological need while de Maupassant’s Mrs. Loisel dreamed of physical needs which were quite trivial as compared to that of Mrs. Mallard’s. How the stories were told and how the characters were exposed are interesting angles for readers to consider in looking more deeply into the meanings of the stories. The Story of an Hour is narrated by a third person, picturing the life of a woman married to a man who was not mentioned to have abused her i n any way, rather treated their marriage life as dictated by norms. Women during the time of the setting were known to be housekeepers, left to attend to children and the household chores. To Mrs. Mallard, the task of staying home was an imposing feature of the male in the house and society; making her feel like a prisoner. This statement is supported by the words of the woman saying â€Å"Free, free† and in addition, kept whispering, â€Å"Free! Body and soul, free!† This shows that Mrs. Mallard had a longing for freedom which the expectations of people from wives, have silenced during the time of her marriage with her supposedly dead husband. The Necklace, on the other hand, narrates the story on the third person also, of a woman who longed for what the elite French represented. Being beautiful, Madame Loisel, the main character in the story dreamed of things she thought she was worthy to have. Unluckily, she was born in a family of artisans and was married to a cler k who was not able to provide her whims. Her longings, as opposed to that of Mrs. Mallard’s, are of the trivial things like good food, expensive clothing, and jewelry. Invited to a ball which she always dreamed of attending, she forced her husband to provide for a dress that would suit the occasion and her desires. When presented with the problem of jewelry, the husband suggested her to borrow from her friend which she did. Eventually, they were presented with the conflict to resolve and that is, to replace the borrowed necklace as soon as possible, which got lost when they were going home from the ball. With their little means, the husband had to borrow money to produce the payment of a similar jewelry which caused them to be deeply in debt and made them live through hard work for ten years. The style of de Maupassant in telling his story was quite direct, introducing the character with descriptions that created an image of the woman without letting the reader need some imag inations in understanding the character.

State and Local Milestone 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

State and Local Milestone 1 - Essay Example Mendis (2006) argues that this balance of police power by the community, the states, and the Federal Government hampers the ability of the states to exercise their full police powers. This affects the states’ ability and contemporary efforts in reforming the welfare of their territories. The sharing of police power by individuals also complicates the states’ efforts in fighting terrorism and allows certain individuals to go unpunished with certain crimes. According to Murphy & Lutze (2009), in exercising police powers, adherence and obedience to the set laws may be coerced using a variety of methods that may include but not limited to physical means and legal sanctions. The use of physical means has continually generated controversies when it is applied by the Federal Government, as this conflicts the rights of powers bestowed upon the states. Controversies also arise when the physical means of coercion is used by the federal or states governments on individuals as this conflicts with the rights and freedoms of individuals. Thus, the states appear even more powerless with the availability of the police powers. The court is another organ of the state and federal government that is inevitably affected by the contentious nature of the police power (Revell, 2006). Every state in the US has its different form of constitution as far as the police power is concerned. The federal courts do not have the jurisdiction to interpret state constitutions and considers all the states to be having general police powers and laws. This also raises conflicts between the states and the federal courts, as far as the police power is concerned. In order to realize the full potential and benefit of the police power, it would be prudent to make the police power policy an exclusive function of the states. This would see radical changes in the states’ ability to regulate, control and

Thinking Styles and Decision Making Essay Example for Free

Thinking Styles and Decision Making Essay Levels of thinking differed from one person to another. Each thinking style is influenced by our mainstream society, how we think and develop perception on the material things happening in the surroundings. There are a lot of thinking styles that came into being since the time of old ancestors to the recent modern developers of our age. There are twenty six thinking styles that was developed but we will concentrate our discussion on the three sub-divided types namely the Sensory focus, People focus, and Task focus. Other thinking styles are used in psychological workshops and research such as analyst thinking style, realist thinking style, idealist, synthesist, pragmatist and spiritually-guided thinking style (An Introduction to Thinking Styles,).   In 1995, original concept for the thinking styles was formulated by Fiona Beddoes-Jones to enhance professional and personal development (Thinking Styles,).   Thinking styles can help in dealing with different types of problems in the workplace, academe, family and relationships. The Three Different Thinking Styles   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Before we proceed it is necessary to define the three levels of thinking styles. Sensory Focus examines things by receiving information through the senses and used the senses to perceive actual events. It is manifested in the visual, auditory, kinaesthetic and digital thinking. Watching, observing and looking pictures, diagrams, and visual imagery are the simple ways of expressing visual thinking while auditory requires the use of words and language, listening and conversing things. Kinaesthetic thinking is expressed through feelings, intuition, emotions, and physical movement and exercise as digital thinking entails the use of data, facts and statistics and the degree of data rationality. On the other hand, People Focus is how people perceived to relate with other people on their direct environment. It is focused on different levels of thinking such as internal and external thinking, self-referenced, altruistic, conforming, challenging, collaborative and competitive thinking. Internal thinking depends on own judgments and decisions and only consider self-knowledge as right and disregards feedback from other people. Some other people tend to dislike their own ideas and are not confident to explore many possible views and usually rely on other people or groups of people to give feedback on certain issues and problems. These people are external thinkers. Moreover, self referenced thinking is an approach of putting their own needs first and disregards the needs of others. In contrast, altruistic thinking involves responding to the needs of others and is willing to extend their help to other people. Conforming thinkers tends to keep away from confrontations and will certainly take a non-challenging methods, in contrast to challenging thinkers who definitely wanted to take confrontations, debates and experiments. Competitive thinkers would like to aspire for competitions and wants to gain victory from their own performance. Persons who wanted duties defined and detailed-oriented are Task Focus thinkers. They are conscious of the details especially in workplace where information is being transmitted through detailed facts and information. The Task Focus thinkers are strategic, creative, logical, options, procedural, towards, troubleshooting, proactive, reactive, simplicity, complexity, sameness, and different thinkers (Ltd., 2005). These thinking styles are distinct from each other but may sometimes closely connected together. Different patterns of these styles are being used as understanding and communicating with other people in surviving the daily response to work and life system. The amount of understanding different types of problems requires thinking styles that may influence critical thinking process. Such mentioned types of styles are good considerations in problem solving and decision making process. Sensory thinking style can help improve relationship with other people in the workplace, school, organizations, friends, and even families. Non-verbal communication somehow helps in understanding different personalities and the way you can approach them when facing a contradiction. Senses can transmit information and analyze things just by looking, observing, listening, feeling, intuitions, and physical movements. By looking at a critical situation using this kind of style, one can already define and identify the drawbacks. Most persons who don’t want confrontations tends to choose sensory focus in delivering and receiving information towards a given situation or crisis within a workplace. While others opted to choose interaction and personal touch to listen and confront problems this is somehow difficult in relating to contradictions with other people. However, it is very effective in most groups of people who are open-minded and problems can be solved instantaneously. Alternatively, task focus is a better way of coping up things since it is focused on goals and targets, detailed information, possibilities and alternatives in solving problems. These type of styles are distinct to each other and generally have an effect on critical thinking process and can possibly help the outcome of the decision making process. The positive upshot makes life more constructive by knowing which style you are most confident and at ease or difficult to cope up with in acknowledging, appreciating, expressing or solving things and difficulties. It brings people together and means more efficiency in duties, constancy in having good health, development of self-being, and gaining more friends and social groups. Reference An Introduction to Thinking Styles [Electronic Version]. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from http://www.earthtym.net/s-general.html. Ltd., T. C. F. C. (2005). Thnking Styles [Electronic Version]. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from http://www.consultingtools.com/media/thinkingstyles.pdf. Thinking Styles [Electronic Version]. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from http://www.cognitivefitness.co.uk/.

Mutation Testing by Using Formal Method

Mutation Testing by Using Formal Method Jaspreet Singh Abstract Mutation testing was introduced in 1970’s in the field of software testing as a process of testing the test suites by intentionally seeding errors i.e. mutation operators, into the original program’s source code. Its main purpose is to verify the functionality of the test cases which are executed with the aim of catching the variations between the program and the mutants. It’s extremely essential to improve the efficiency and adequacy of test cases. Hence, the goal is to make the mutant program fail. This paper depends upon the literature survey of mutation testing by using formal methods. Keywords- Mutant, Code, Program, Test cases, Kill, PIMS. I INTRODUCTION Since 1970’s, this technique is used by developers for validating the test cases as well as the test data generation. It’s a well know process to computer scientists for years. But due to heaviness of the method, it demanded huge computational power which reduced its usability. But the advancements in software engineering and the era of increased computational power, has laid it continue to serve as the most powerful method of verifying the functionality and performance of test suites. The objective is to improve the aptness and efficiency of test cases where the programmer will intentionally alter the original program’s source code by injecting a faulty piece of code known as a mutant, into it. The resultant code is referred to as mutated code. The mutation procedure will create many versions of the original program. Each version is known as a mutant. The execution of a mutant will verify the proficiency of the test case. If the output of the original program wi ll vary with that of the mutant one causing each faulty version to fail [1]. The resultant mutant is killed and the test case is saved considering it an adequate one. More the number of mutants killed by a test case, the better is the competency of the test case. Mutation testing is proficient in testing programs at the unit level, integration level and the specification level. It has been applied to many programming languages like C, C++, etc. and is a part of white box test technique [2]. II LITERATURE SURVEY Initial concepts of mutation were introduced by Richard Lipton in a class term paper titled â€Å"Fault Diagnosis of Computer Programs†. The first referred publications were presented in the late 1970’s ; the DeMillo, Lipton. PIMS was one of the first mutation testing tools [3]. It originated the basic procedure typically used in mutation analysis of creating mutants, obtaining test cases from the users, and then executing the them on the mutants to conclude how many mutants were killed. The most widely used tool among researchers was the Mothra mutation toolset [3], which provided an integrated set of tools, each of which performed an individual, separate task to support mutation analysis and testing. Several variants of Mothra were created in the early 1990s, including one that implemented weak mutation [4], and several distributed versions. A compiler-integrated mutation tool for C was also developed [5], and tool that was based on program schemata [6]. However, thes e tools were primarily used by the researchers who developed them and the only widely used system besides the original version of Mothra has been the Proteum mutation system for C [7]. A Formal Methods Formal methods are techniques based on mathematics and formal logic. It supports automated consistency checking and testing specifications. It helps finding defects when applied to good quality software. Such methods allow large number of classes of test cases having finite proof with support least dependence on subjective reasoning [8]. B The benefits of using Formal Methods include: Product-focused measure of correctness: The use is used for the of Formal correctness of a system. Early detection of defects: Formal Methods can be applied to earlier detection and elimination of design defects and associated late cycle rework. Guarantees of correctness: Unlike testing, formal analysis tools go through all possible execution paths through the system. If there is any way to reach a fault condition, a tool will find it. In a multi-threaded system where concurrency is an issue, formal analysis can explore all possible interleavings and event orderings[13]. Fig-1 Formal Methods such as model checking examine more system behaviors for safety violations than testing alone III NOTIONS OF FORMAL PROOF: A Mathematical proof: A formal proof is a complete and convincing mathematical argument, presenting the full logical justification for each proof of set of theorems B Machine-checked proof: A formal proof is evidence accepted by a proof checker showing that a conjecture is a valid consequence of given axioms. C Hilbert proof: A formal proof in a theory is a sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom of or a direct consequence of preceding formulas in the sequence by virtue of a rule of inference associated with the underlying formal system[14]. IV TYPES OF MUTANTS We define the following classification of mutants as follows: A Killed Mutant; which was killed by a test case which was specifically written to kill it. The concept behind mutation testing is that modifying the source code of a given unit (or mutating it) should cause the test that operates on that unit to fail. Example : Method and Corresponding Unit Test //original code under test public class Example { public boolean is LessThanThree(int number) { return (number Example : Mutated Method public class Example { public boolean isLessThanThree(int number) { return (number > 3); } } Notice that with this mutation, the method testLessThanThree would fail because the mutated method now returns the boolean number > 3, which in this case would be false and the assert statement is checking to see that the desired result is true. The method TestLessThanThreeFail would not fail, however, because 3 is not greater than 3 and the returned boolean would be false, which is what the assert statement is checking for. Because testLessThanThree failed, this mutant is said to be killed; the mutation caused the test to fail, which means the test is adequately catching this kind of mistake[12]. Dead on Arrival (DOA)- Mutant that was killed by the initial test suite found in the test bed. Ignored Mutant which a study participant encountered but did not kill. Living-Mutant which could not be killed due to time constraints (whether or not the mutant was encountered). Crossfire- Mutant that was killed by a test case intended to kill a different mutant. Stubborn.-Mutant that cannot be killed by a test case due to logical equivalence or language constructs. B Ordering Mutants: Let P be an implemented program and P’ be a first order mutant that differs from P at location l. A test case, t1 can distinguish P form P’ provided the following necessary and sufficient conditions hold on executing P and P’ with starting state t1: This has 3 properties: The execution must reach location l ( ); The evaluation of expressions at location l in P and P’ must result in different values at least once ( ) ; The final states on termination of execution of P and P’ must be different ( ). Properties (a) and (b) follow by observing that the location must be reached and in the case of a c-location the two executions must result in two different states if they are to be distinguished. 1) Process of Mutation Testing NO YES YES NO Fig. 2 Working of Mutation process The process of mutation analysis is shown in fig. 2. Steps are as follows: The program is being fed as an input and is executed. The resultant is checked . If the resultant indicates successful completion of the program, then terminate. If not, then create mutants (mutated code). A mutant, as previously mentioned is an intentionally altered program by the programmer. It is fed by some errors termed as mutation operators. Test cases are created to the system to be executed on the program. Execute the test cases against the mutant. If the output of the mutant is correct, then execute the test case on each version of the mutant. If not, then again the output of the original program is checked. Compare the output of the original source code with that of each version’s. A decision is made after determining the output of the original code with that of the mutated one. If the output differs, then the test is considered to be an adequate one and is executed on each of the mutants of the program The mutant that is detected is marked as dead/killed. Whereas, output being same indicates inadequacy of the test case and the program. 2) Mutation Operators- Taxonomy of mutation operators: 3)Statement Mutations: The mutant is produced by replacing the keywords in the statement, like While to do while While to For Example for Switch statement: Program Switch Statements case 0: i++; case 1: i = 4; Mutant: case 1: i++; case 0: i = 4; Operator Mutations The mutant is produced by changing the operator in the original source code. For ex: a=1, b=0 If (a b) { C=1; } else { C=0;} The condition mutation operator would replace with the mutation operator || and gives us the following mutant: If(a||b) { C=1; } else { C=0;} Variable Mutations Replace each variable with another variable declared in the same scope (variable types should be the same). Constant Mutations In constant mutations, the mutant tends to fail as there is no mutation operator to be replaced Ex: If (1) { printf (â€Å"How are you?†); } Else {printf(â€Å"I am fine.†);} In this case, mutation testing fails. [2] Example Original piece of a code: c=a+b; where a=3and b=2 Putting the values for a and b, it will result in 3+2=5 Now, possible mutants are c=a-b; , c=a/b; and c=a*b; Such mutations are mostly easier for a test suite to recognize if (a == b) { //do something } will be mutated to if (a != b) { // do something } Here, == is replaced by !=. V PROS AND CONS Mutation procedure is widely acceptable as an essential way to determine the fault-detecting effectiveness of the test sets. Now software developers and testers everywhere can enjoy the most powerful error- detection capabilities with the speed and ease of use of an automatic running debugging tool [9]. But, at the same time it pertains some disadvantages also, which are as follows: A PRO’S: Providing the testers with a target- One of the major advantages of mutation testing is that it provides the tester with a target. The tester has to generate a test data with the aim of killing all the generated mutants. Therefore, we can generate an adequate test data set that is capable enough to detect errors in the program.[10] Bringing more confidence in customers and testers- The customer also benefits from this technique , as he receives a more reliable and bug free software. This will increase confidence in them which will profit your company where it matters most. Mutation Testing originated as a means of creating more effective test suites by which the tester can be more confident that his program is adequately tested. It’s a powerful fault-based testing approach for competent programmers. B CON’S: Computationally expensive due to lack of automated tool..Mutation Testing is complicated and time-consuming to perform without an automated tool. Often, there are massive number of mutants that are generated for a original program as number of mutants is directly proportional to the mutation operators applied. Hence it is computationally expensive to run. The test cases on each and every mutant. It is also expensive to compile and execute every mutant [9][10]. An example of this is shown in Table No. 2 given below. Table 2 Increase In Computational Cost Such mutants only contribute in increasing the computational cost as the efforts needed to check if mutants are equivalent or not, can be very high even for small programs against the test cases. [2] Equivalent Mutants, one of the biggest problems- Syntactically different from the original program. But, semantically the same. Consider the example given in Table No. 3 given below: The equivalent mutant is generated by changing the operator Table 3 Equivalent Mutants Manual equivalent mutant detection is quite tedious- The other barrier to more widespread use of mutation testing is the amount of manual labor involved in using this technique. Hence, developing mutation adequate test cases can be very labor-intensive.[2] VI CONCLUSION This paper provides a detailed review of mutation testing .It covers the objective, Analysis of previous mutation systems, Formal Methods, working of mutation testing and efficient test case generation, Taxonomy of mutation operators and its Pro’s and Con’s . Mutation testing has given a great contribution in the field of software testing and provided the testers with a matured and affordable technique in detecting best test suites. Future Scope Our future scope is to develop a more advanced mutation testing approach that minimizes the issue of computational cost up to a certain level with the aim of killing all the possible mutants and thereby generating good test cases. REFERENCES [1] Yue Jia ans Mark Harman. An Analysis and Survey of the Development of Mutation Testing. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, King’s College London, Centre for Research on Evolution Search and Testing (CREST), Strand, London, WC2R 2LS, UK, 2010 [2] Hiralal Agrawal , Richard A. DeMillo, Bob Hathaway, William Hsu, Wynne Hsu, E.W. Krauser, R.J. Martin and Aditya P. Mathur, â€Å"Design Of Mutant Operators For The C Programming Language†, Software Engineering Research Centre, Department of Computer Sciences, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN 47907, Revision 1.02, March 20, 1989. [3] D. M. S. Andre. Pilot mutation system (pims) user’s manual. Technical report GIT-ICS-79/04, Georgia Institute of Technology, April 1979 [4] A.J Offutt and S.D.Lee. An empirical evaluation of weak mutation. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering , 20(5): 337-344, May 1994. [5] R.A. DeMillo, E.W.Krauser, and A.P. Mathur. Compiler-integrated program mutation. In Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference (COMPSAC’ 92), Tokya, Japan, September 1991. Kogakuim University, IEEE Computer Society Press. [6] R. Untch, A.J. Offutt, and M.J. Harrold. Mutation analysis using program schemata. In Proceedings of the 1993 International symposium on Software Testing, and Analysis, pages 139-148, Cambridge MA, June 1993. [7] M.E. Delamaro and J.C. Maldonado. Proteum – A tool for the assessment of test adequacy for C programs. Proceedings of the Conference on Performability in Computing Systems, pages 75-95. July 1996. [8] A. Jefforson Offutt, A practical system for mutation testing: Help for the common programmer, ISSE Department, George Mason University,Fairfax, VA 22030, 1994. [9] S. Madiraju ,S. Ramakrishnan and A.J.Hurst, â€Å"Towards Automated Mutation Testing†, March 2004. [10] A. Jefferson Offutt and Roland H.Untch, Mutation : Uniting the orthogonal, A. Jeerson Offutt ISE Department, George Mason University Fairfax, VA USA, Roland H.Untch, Department of Computer Science Middle Tennessee State University Murfreesboro, 2000. [11] David L. Dill, â€Å"Formal Methods Specification and Verification Guidebook for software and computer systems† Vol. 1, Computer Science Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, July 1995. [12] Ben Smith and Laurie Williams, â€Å"Software Engineering†, Department of computer science North Carolina State University. [13] Murali Rangarajan, â€Å"Formal Methods†,Honeywell Laboratories 3660 Technology Drive Minneapolis, MN 55418. [14] James G. Williams and Marshall D. Abrams, â€Å"Formal Methods And Models†.

Tree Conservation Essay :: essays research papers

Trees the Most Valuable Resource on Earth Today  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Forests are one of the most valuable resources on the planet today. Without forests it would be almost impossible for any living thing to survive. But, with this in mind many people destroy forests. It is as though they don’t even care that they are dooming themselves as well as the trees. Hopefully through this article I can help save the forest and help human kind, as well as all other organisms, by telling how important the forest is and how it functions. What is a Forest?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A forest is more than just a bunch of trees growing next to each other. A forest is a very complex system of animals and plants, living in and on fertile and suitable soil. Forests are divided up into five different levels or layers. These levels are the canopy, herb, shrub, understory, and the forest floor. The canopy layer is the top layer. This is where photosynthesis takes place and it’s also where the leafy tops of the trees are. This layer is home to a variety of insects and squirrels. The next layer is the understory. This is made up of smaller trees and is home to birds and climbing animals. The third layer is known as the shrub layer. It is made up of shrubs and vines. It also provides nuts and berries. The next layer is the herb layer. This layer is made up of soft green plants and wildflowers. Birds, insects, snakes, and toads also nest there. The last and final layer is the forest floor. This is the thick fertile soil covered by twigs, branches, insects and detritus. Why are Trees Important?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trees are major erosion blockers. Their leaves intercept rain and lower the force of impact the water has on the ground. Each tiny rain drop is like a miniature bomb. It splatters and washes dirt away with it. Tree roots also hold in soil and keep it from washing away. People plant trees on mountain slopes and other similar places to prevent mud slides. This aspect makes trees a very valuable resource.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Healthy forests serve as wonderful habitats. It provides clean water, food, shelter, and the space that living organisms need to survive. Different animals need different habitats. The forest gives them this with a variety of places to live. All though some live on the ground, most of them live in trees.

The Enlightenment :: European Europe History

The Enlightenment The Enlightenment is a name given by historians to an intellectual movement that was predominant in the Western world during the 18th century. Strongly influenced by the rise of modern science and by the aftermath of the long religious conflict that followed the Reformation, the thinkers of the Enlightenment (called philosophes in France) were committed to secular views based on reason or human understanding only, which they hoped would provide a basis for beneficial changes affecting every area of life and thought. The more extreme and radical philosophes-Denis Diderot, Claude Adrien Helvetius, Baron d'Holbach, the Marquis de Condorcet, and Julien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709-51)--advocated a philosophical rationalism deriving its methods from science and natural philosophy that would replace religion as the means of knowing nature and destiny of humanity; these men were materialists, pantheists, or atheists. Other enlightened thinkers, such as Pierre Bayle, Voltaire, David Hume, Jean Le Rond D'alembert, and Immanuel Kant, opposed fanaticism, but were either agnostic or left room for some kind of religious faith. All of the philosophes saw themselves as continuing the work of the great 17th century pioneers-Francis Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, Leibnitz, Isaac Newton, and John Locke-who had developed fruitful methods of rational and empirical inquiry and had demonstrated the possibility of a world remade by the application of knowledge for human benefit. The philosophes believed that science could reveal nature as it truly is and show how it could be controlled and manipulated. This belief provided an incentive to extend scientific methods into every field of inquiry, thus laying the groundwork for the development of the modern social sciences. The enlightened understanding of human nature was one that emphasized the right to self-expression and human fulfillment, the right to think freely and express one's views publicly without censorship or fear of repression. Voltaire admired the freedom he found in England and fostered the spread of English ideas on the Continent. He and his followers opposed the intolerance of the established Christian churches of their day, as well as the European governments that controlled and suppressed dissenting opinions. For example, the social disease which Pangloss caught from Paquette was traced to a "very learned Franciscan" and later to a Jesuit. Also, Candide reminisces that his passion for Cunegonde first developed at a Mass. More conservative enlightened thinkers, concerned primarily with efficiency and administrative order, favored the "enlightened despotism" of such monarchs as Emperor Joseph II, Frederick II of Prussia, and Catherine II of Russia.

corporate culture Essay -- essays research papers

Corporate Culture The culture of an organization is the set of values, beliefs, behaviors, customs, and attitudes that helps its members understand what the organization stands for, how it does things, and what it considers important"(Griffin, 49). In other words, "the way things work around here" (Dr. Williams). In order for any small business or large corporation to be successful, the employees must understand what is expected of them. While things might be slightly different in a large corporation versus a small "mom and pop shop", the goal of both is the same. MAKE THE BUSINESS MONEY. The topic of my paper will be on makes a good corporate culture. Running a business is not so much about the particular business but instead about the "sound business philosophies" that are shared by every level in the organization (Chapin, 1). Fortunately for smaller business's, finding those "business philosophies" are not as hard or have the need to be as complex as big corporations. According to Steven Chapin, author of "Building a Sound Company Culture", there are four basic building blocks that serve as a strong foundation for the company. These four blocks are integrity, leadership, dedication, and service. "Integrity is the keystone" (Chapin, 1). Complete honesty is the ethical way and should be the only way that one does business. Without integrity, there would be no trust between your company and the customers. When clients and consumers trust you, they want to do business with you and will continue to do business with you until they feel as though the integrity has been sacrificed. The second &quo t;building block" for a sound corporate culture is leadership (Chapin 1). Leadership is not only a quality that upper management and managers need to have, but instead it is a quality that all members of a business should develop (Chapin, 1). If a company only had one "leader" then the company would not be very successful because that particular person would be only person to incorporate change in the company. With many employees having leadership qualities, a company is able to better itself with by having multitude of ideas to choose from to better the company. If a company wishes to better leadership qualities then the company should encourage and "active participation in technica... ...enefit the company with a good out flow of energy released. Miler’s next principle is the excellence principle. â€Å"Our culture values comfort, both material and psychological† (Miller, 15). â€Å"We feel as though we should achieve personal satisfaction and fulfillment† from our job (Miller, 15). According to miller the only way to encourage excellence is to provide dissatisfaction (Miller, 15). Miller also states that a workers satisfaction is often in conflict with excellence. The average employee would rather not come under any tests and trials and it is this motivation, in part, that keeps them going (Miller, 15). The consensus principle is Miller’s next idea. â€Å"Managers are stuck in the culture of command† (Miller, 15). An organizations ability to bring ideas together and the challenge of making the employees/managers think creatively will be the success of a company (Miller, 16). It is important, according to this principle, for the employee to share his thoughts and feelings. It is also important for the employee to change his efforts from physical energy to mental energy (Miller, 16). It is â€Å"This change in task† that â€Å"necessitates a change from command to consensus† (Miller, 16).

The Technology’s Influence in Todays World

Every single day a new type of technology is being introduced to the world. Technology has improved a lot over years, and it is a great thing these days, because it can be very helpful, especially for people with disabilities. However people are taking advantage of it. I think life is impossible without cell phones and laptops! This phrase sounds shocking but reality is reality. Some people can’t live without modern technology like cell phones. Everybody knows what modern technology is. Modern technology is a technology created or invented to help us do works and make our life easier. i think we should perfectly understand that modern technology can make our life more convenient and safes a great deal of our time. We become lazy because of modern technologies like cell phones, washing machine, televisions, and others. People used to wash their dirty clothes using hands, but now they just have to put their dirty clothes into the washing machine and press some buttons. as we know. Modern technologies create financial problems, too. Because most of the modern technologies are too expensive to buy. People need to be active in order to be healthy. Walking to the store, riding a bike instead of a car, visiting a post office instead of sending an e-mail, all these things may or may not be more convenient, but they are a better alternative because it involves doing things physically. Being active means just a little more then the click of the mouse. Everyone loves the Internet. Suddenly everything just becomes so fast and easy. But easy does not necessarily mean better. Although being active enough is a major concern when it comes to modern technology, there are more things to worry about. Today’s technology can be as simple as the push of a button. Because everything is so easy, human’s brain is functioning as much as it should, and that is not a good thing. People need to develop their brain by reading, thinking in order to be smart, however its nearly impossible with the kind of technology we have these days.

Humor in Advertising Essay

If you hear the word â€Å"coke,† what is the first product that comes into your mind? Or if you hear the name â€Å"McDonald’s,† what television commercial do you remember? When we hear these words or terms, we can easily associate them with products because of the advertisements that we see on television, hear over the radio, read in the magazines or billboards or in the Internet. Advertising is simply the public promotion of products and services. Its primary intention is to persuade the prospective consumer to buy the products or avail the services. Usually, advertising are paid promotions. One of the strategies of advertising is injecting the copy with humor. Though according to Brian Sternthal and Samuel Craig of the Journal of Marketing (1973), there are relatively little known about the persuasive effect of humor, advertisers still continue to use humor in their ads. This is not only to make people laugh but actually the combination of advertisement and entertainment. Many believe that it is easier to get the attention of the audience when there is humor and they can laugh at the advertisement. Humor also reinforces the retention of the audience to certain products or services. However, there are advertising agencies that are against the use of humor in advertising. Reasons include the absence of sense of humor to some audience, thus ruining the intention of the advertisement and could decrease the positive perception of the target market. Moreover, humor in advertising could be subjective and may be misinterpreted; also, it could insult someone. Though there are different interpretations in using humor in advertising, we could still say that it could be an effective instrument to persuade people. Whether the impact of the humor is positive or negative, you are assured that you have got the attention of your viewers and most likely because they are affected by it, they may try the product. References: Sternthal, B. & Craig, S. (Oct. 1973) Humor in Advertising. Journal of Marketing Vol. 39 No. 4, pp. 12-18 _______. (______). Using Humor in Advertising. Retrieved December 15, 2007 from http://www. myprofessionaladvertising. com/Humor%20in%20Advertising. htm Advertising Definition http://wordnet. princeton. edu/perl/webwn? s=advertising.

Models of Corporate Governance

The basis of the model of corporate governance can be identified in their approach to the three dimensions of decision making which are considered as the essence of corporate governance. The decision making is centered round the three basic questions; (a) by whom the decisions are to be made, (b) for whom the decisions are attempted to be made and (c) what are the resources that back up the decision making approaches. The ultimate aim of analyzing the decision making process through these questions is to underpin the agency to whom the accountability is due to be directed[1] This part of the study deals aims to contrast the Islamic corporate governance with the Western approach which is exhibited by at least two models which this paper considers. Governance Framework in Western Perspective The European system of corporate governance encompasses a socially responsive corporation where the shareholders and others are encouraged to exert influence over policies that are being adopted to the extent that they are not in conformity with a socially responsive attitude. Similarly the board members and managers are not discouraged either to follow their view points so that the decisions make the firm a socially responsive one[2]. However such a direct influence over the functioning of the firm is not provided for in all the market systems. For instance in Germany and other countries like Austria and Switzerland the governance is administered by a two tier board consisting of a ‘supervisory board’ and an ‘executive board’. The executive board represents the top management and the members of the supervisory board is composed of outside professionals and in some cases employee representatives just to oversee and discipline the executive board. Even in the case of ‘managed corporation’ model widely prevalent in the United States directors and managers found it worth to take the advise of the institutional shareholders in the conduct of the business of the firm. When this relationship is further expanded it leads to the formation of a ‘stakeholder model’ of corporate governance which protects the interest of all stakeholders.[3] Managed Corporation Model The model of managed corporation answers the question of ‘by whom’. This model is underlined by large public companies with a dispersed shareholding[4]. Under this model managers occupy the central role with the authority to strategy formulation and setting the policies of the company. While the Board takes the responsible of hiring the managers the managers lead the directors and shareholders. The Board is also given the responsibility to monitor the performance of the mangers appointed and remove them in case of unsatisfactory performance. The shareholders’ role is limited to replace the Board in case of poor performance of the company. Thus the scope of corporate governance under this model is limited to the extent of appointing the right managers and controlling their performance. Socially Responsive Corporation Model This model takes the position to answer the question ‘for whom’. This model presupposes the interest of the shareholders as the foremost principle of corporate governance as laid down by the OECD ‘Principles of Corporate Governance’ [5] Thus the concept of shareholder value has been made the yardstick against which the performance of the management need to be measured. This is the practice in the United States, the UK and several other Anglo-Saxon countries and has also been recognised as a matter of prominence in Europe and Japan too. Under this model the institutions view the firms eligible for potential investment in their securities to have a clear market directive to enhance the returns on the existing capital. [6] Accounting and Corporate Governance The process of identifying, measuring and communicating information for facilitating the user to make meaningful decision is provided by accounting. According to Baydoun and Willet (2000) [7] accounting disclosures in ‘managed corporation model’ is often limited to the extent the individuals that control the resources needs the disclosure. However the fact remains that the corporate governance issues can be addressed and explained by detailed financial statements since these issues are normally concentrated on the agencies having a wider financial stake in the entity. This explains the terms with what resources and to whom the accountability is directed. Islamic Perspective of Corporate Governance The important principles of good corporate governance and the codes of best practice developed during the last decade, imply that directing the companies and controlling them to function according to defined moral standards which are acceptable to the community in general[8]. The principles do not just recognize achieving the economic efficiency or earning maximum profitability as the best practice. According to Mervyn K Lewis (2005)[9] there are two aspects which particularly shape the nature of Islamic corporate governance. The first one is concerned with the Shariah which claims sovereignty over all the aspects of life of any human being. It is so extensive it covers ethical and social issues; and also it talks about civil and criminal jurisdiction. Shariah lays down the principle that every believer of Islam must conform to the basic principles of Islamic Law. Each one of them is expected to observe the ethical standards derived from economic principles irrespective of the status or social position. â€Å"These ethical principles define what is true fair and just, the nature of corporate responsibilities, the priorities to society, along with some specific governance standards† (Mervyn K. Lewis, 2005). Secondly, Shariah has also provided some specific Islamic economic and financial principles along with the business ethical standards, which have a larger influence upon the corporate practices and principles. â€Å"Included here are the institution of zak ¥h (the alms tax), the ban on rib ¥ (usury) and the prohibition on speculation, calling for the development of an economic system based on profit and loss sharing† (Mervyn K. Lewis, 2005). Dimensions of Decision Making and Islamic Perspective of Corporate Governance The three dimensions of decision making with respect to corporate governance under Islamic perspective is answered in the following way: By Whom According to Mervyn K. Lewis (2005) the question of by whom the decisions are to be made the Holy Quran is providing a correct response by promoting mutual consultations and once decision is taken then there has to be a firm belief that it will do good to everyone concerned. He further adds that when the basic principles of Shurd are followed it requires the leaders to encourage others to take part in the process of decision making. Thus consultation is made the key word by Shariah and this implies that â€Å"An employee would be expected to contribute his or her knowledge to the formulation and implementation of the organizational vision, and consultative procedures should be applied to all those affected, i.e. shareholders, suppliers, customers, workers and the community† [10] For Whom Under Islamic perspective of decision making process there is the clear answer to the question as to for whom the decisions are attempted to be made. The answer is that the ultimate end of any business and economic activity that involve the human beings are to be considered as being done to the grace of Allah and the ways and means employed to accomplish the activities should never deviate from the law of Islam as quoted by Shariah in any way (Mervyn K. Lewis, 2005). With Whom and to Whom Mervyn K. Lewis (2005) points out that the third requirement for ensuring corporate governance principles in an Islamic perspective involves the process by which an effective religious supervision is undertaken. The objective of this supervision is to ensure that the operations, contracts, and procedures of the enterprise are in conformity with the Islamic code. Algaoud and Lewis (1999)[11] observe that the process covering the religious supervision is explicitly illustrated in the case of Islamic Financial Institutions. In addition the religious auditors provide a comprehensive report on the adherence of the Islamic principles across the full spectrum of the business activities. The religious audit helps to improve the functioning of any corporation towards achieving the Islamic principles by undertaking the following distinct functions: (1)  Ã‚   the religious auditor advises the Board and the top management about the acceptability of the transactions and the contracts proposed to be entered by the firm and also on the development of new products (2)  Ã‚   the second function of the religious auditor is to make a comprehensive report to the shareholders as to the compliance by the management the Islamic principles in the running of the organization and (3)  Ã‚   the audit of the creation of Zakah fund to ensure that the fund is created after a proper assessment of the amount to be contributed and the administration and distribution of the funds are carried out as per the Islamic principles (Mervyn K. Lewis, 2005) Points of Distinction Hanifa and Hudaib (2003) [12] identify the following difficulties that the Islamic perspective of corporate governance face while adopting the best corporate governance practices. (1)  Ã‚   Under the Western approach to the corporate governance the business morality is primarily based on ‘secular humanist’ values governing the ethical foundations of the business while the Islamic perspective of corporate governance follows the principles laid down by shariah as the guiding force (2)  Ã‚   The basic beliefs and values in the Western corporate culture predominantly considers the self interest and even with some modifications there may not be the case that the larger interest of the society will be considered. This is totally against the Islamic principles (3)  Ã‚   Thirdly the Western model of corporate governance is based on agency theory and there is no place for stewardship theory.[13]The basic difference lies in the actors who are agents with a self interested opportunistic approach who can not be motivated to be stewards to act in the best interest of the principals. In the case of Islamic perspective of corporate governance there is no place for self interest of the agents, [1] Mervyn K. Lewis (2005) ‘Islamic Corporate Governance’ International Association for Islamic Economic Review of Islamic Economics Vol. 9 No 1 pp 5 – 29 [2] Mervyn K. Lewis (2005) ‘Islamic Corporate Governance’ International Association for Islamic Economic Review of Islamic Economics Vol. 9 No 1 pp 5 – 29 [3] Lannoo, K. (1995). Corporate Governance in Europe. CEPS Working Party Report No 12. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies. [4]Pound, J. (1995). Ã’The Promise of the Governed CorporationÓ, Harvard Business Review, March-April, reprinted in Corporate Governance (2000), Harvard: Harvard Business School Press. [5] OECD (1999). OECD Principles of Corporate Governance. Paris: OECD. [6] Lewis, M.K. (2003b). Ã’Globalisation and Corporate GovernanceÓ in M. Shanahan and G. Treuren (eds.), Globalisation: Australian Regional Perspectives. Adelaide:Wakefield Press. [7] Baydoun, N. and Willett, R. (2000). Ã’Islamic Corporate ReportsÓ, ABACUS, 36(1), pp. 71-89. [8] Gooden, S. (2001). Ã’Participation of Stakeholders in the Corporate Governance of Islamic Financial InstitutionsÓ, New Horizon, 114, November, pp.12-15. [9]Mervyn K. Lewis (2005) ‘Islamic Corporate Governance’ International Associ ation for Islamic Economic Review of Islamic Economics Vol. 9 No 1 pp 5 – 29 [10] Baydoun, N.; Mamman, A. and Mohmaud, A. (1999). Ã’The Religious Context of Management Practices: The Case of the Islamic ReligionÓ, Accounting, Commerce &Finance: The Islamic Perspective Journal, 3(1 & 2), pp. 52-79. [11] Algaoud, L. M. and Lewis, M. K. (1999). Ã’Corporate Governance in Islamic Banking: The Case of BahrainÓ, International Journal of Business Studies, 7(1),pp.56-86. [12] Haniffa, R. and Hudaib, M. A. (2002). Ã’A Theoretical Framework for the Development of the Islamic Perspective of AccountingÓ, Accounting, Commerce & Finance: The Islamic Perspective Journal, 6 (1&2), pp. 1-74. [13] Davis, J. H.; Schoorman, F. D. and Donaldson, L. (1997). Ã’Towards a Stewardship Theory of ManagementÓ, Academy of Management Review, 22(1), pp. 20-47.

Altria’s Contingent Liabilities

Altria Group is the parent of Philip Morris USA Inc. and John Middleton, Inc. , which produces and sell cigarettes and other tobacco products. Altria also owns Philip Morris Capital Corp, which maintains a portfolio of finance leases. On March 30, 2007, Altria Group distributed all of its remaining interest in Kraft Foods Inc. to its stockholders. It also completed the spin-off of its subsidiary Philip Morris International Inc. As of Dec. 31, Altria declared $57,211,000,000 in total assets, and debts of $38,657,000,000. A mounts owed by Altria's consumer products units total $33,054,000,000, with $17,782,000,000 constituting as current debts. Accordign to its balance sheet, Altria's liabilities include short-term borrowings; accrued liabilities for marketing, taxes, employment costs, and settlement charges; dividends payable, accrued pension and healthcare costs, and long-term debt. It is Altria's obligation to report all liabilities in its balance sheet in accordance with the accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (U. S. GAAP). For example, if Philip Morris obtains a EUR1. 5 billion, 364-day term loan, expiring Dec. 2, 2008, from Bank of America, it is expected to list in its balance sheet that it has debts of EUR1. 5 billion on account of the term loan. If Bank of America asserts that an additional EUR500 million is due on the term loan due to Philip Morris' violations of its covenant that Philip Morris should limit allowed debt expenditures, but Phillip Morris disputes the claim, Philip Morris need not include BofA's claim in its balance sheet. BofA's claim will still be subject to arbitration or litigation, and courts may rule in favour of Philip Morris. Hence, Altria does not disclose these types of events in its balance sheet. Altria, however, has fiduciary duties to disclose to shareholders all potential liabilities that may become actual liabilities in the future. These include liabilities that are contingent, disputed or un-liquidated. For Atria's case, some of these liabilities will likely include pending lawsuits filed against the company. Pending lawsuits are subject to trial, may be sent to appeal after a ruling is served, may result to settlement between parties, may end up being dismissed, or may end up with monetary judgment, either substantial sums or de minimis amounts, against the defendant. Because of the varied possible outcomes, Atria maybe unable to provide reasonable estimates on the debts they may incur as a result of these lawsuits. Regardless, shareholders have to be aware of the potential losses they may incur as a result of these contingencies. Investors also have to be aware of potential risks the company is facing. Hence, contingencies and other   potential liabilities are listed as footnotes to financial statements. In its Annual Report, Altria discussed contingencies to its financial statements. It stated that legal proceedings are pending or threatened in various U. S. and foreign jurisdictions against Altria and its subsidiaries on account of tobacco-related issues. However, it admitted that its management is unable to estimate the possible loss that could arise from an unfavorable outcome of any of these cases. Accordingly, Altria has not provided any amounts in its financial statements for unfavourable outcomes of pending litigations. For tobacco-related lawsuits that have been resolved through settlements, Altria included these items in its balance sheet because its liabilities on account of those disputes have already been determined. For example, Altria has stated settlement payments it owes on account of the Master Settlement Agreement reached by PM USA with 46 states and other governments for health care cost recovery and other claims. REFERENCES â€Å"2007 Annual Report. † Altria Group, Inc. http://www. altria. com/download/pdf/investors_AltriaGroupInc_2007_AnnualRpt. pdf

Integration of Focused Assessments and Review of Systems using QCPR at Research Paper

Integration of Focused Assessments and Review of Systems using QCPR at Trauma Hosiptal - Research Paper Example However, some of the organizations such Trauma hospitals have managed to improve their accuracy in recording patients’ records, delivery of accurate results from their diagnosis and backing-up their patients’ records that are used in any future reference on these patients in case any information regarding the patient is required. Therefore, it is advisable for all medical institutions to develop QCPR system within their organizations in order to enhanced patients’ recording process during medication that requires emergencies. II. Aims of the Study Over the years, medical institutions have faced pressure from their respective government and clients on the need towards the better provision of health care facilities and medications. This requires the organizations to adopt measures that would allow them to introduce a computerized system within their working premises for better service provision. Moreover, the introduction of computerized system would help in the re duction of costs and time consumption that has been experienced before (Mahoney 56). Therefore, the aim of this research paper is to identify various importance of the system using QCPR at Trauma Hospitals in enhancing the medication process especially in recording of patients while dealing with cases that requires emergency attentions. III. ... lped during the analysis of data as they were used to compare some of the information gathered during the research period, for accurate information to be produced. One of the documents that were found helpful while conducting this research is the journal article by Mahoney (92) bearing the title Transforming Health Information Management Through Technology. Through this document, it was easy to note how the implementation of computerized system within healthcare centers needs to be achieved, various importance of systems using QCPR within hospitals and some of the cautions that need to be taken care of in the implementation and use of the QCPR system (Mahoney 59). IV. Methodologies Need for the production of accurate information regarding the research study required that appropriate data collection methods were to be used (Mahoney 60). Therefore, after considering various data collection methods, interviews, use of questionnaires, observations and document analysis were used. Through observation, time taken for hospitals that uses QCPR were taken and compared to the one that have not yet developed computerized system within their organizations. Through the use of interviews, various patients and doctors were interviewed to gather information on the QCPR system as compared to the manual system and some of the challenges faced in the use of QCPR. While in dealing with document analysis, different documents used during the research period were analysis based on the information contain in them in order for synthesized information to be derived. A Diagram showing results of Questionnaire based on the selected Doctors and Patients Fig. 1 V. Data Analysis and Findings After ensuring that all the available data had been collected, all the information gathered was combined for

Affordable health care Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Affordable health care - Term Paper Example As a result, various health policy changes have been enacted. The passage of the Affordable Care Act has initiated the transformation in the United States health care system since it was enacted. The main goal of the act is fostering preventive healthcare model in the health care system emphasizing on promoting quality care, funding community health initiatives and enhancing primary care delivery. The changes are essential in increasing the need for a well-prepared team of healthcare professionals enhancing quality care delivery. The paper discuss on the implications of the act on the cost and effectiveness of the delivery of high-quality long-term care in the United States (Davis, Abrams, & Stremikis, 2011). The Act has established the basic legal protections that until its establishment, have been absent in the health care system. It guarantees access to affordable health insurance coverage from birth through retirement among the citizens. Under full implementation, the Act is expected to cut the number of uninsured Americans by more than a half leading to 95 percent health insurance coverage of the American population thus reducing the cost associated with seeking health care systems. It consists of 10 separate legislative titles with several major objectives. Among them, include attaining health care universal coverage in U.S through shared responsibility among employers, individuals and the government as well as improving the quality, fairness and affordability of health insurance coverage (Meltzer, 2011). The ACA also aims at improving health care value, efficiency, and quality while reducing wasteful spending and making access to health care more accountable to the diverse patient population. Another objective of the act is strengthening the primary health care access while long term changes in the availability of preventive and primary health care systems. The Obamacare Act is essential in fundamentally altering

May one lend money to co-workers who need it to commit sins Personal Statement

May one lend money to co-workers who need it to commit sins - Personal Statement Example In the case of his friend for instance, who wanted the money to ‘commit sin’ with a call girl, he denied him on moral grounds. He argued that by doing that, he would be hurting the wife of this co-worker. However, his morality position can be questioned where he provides his boss with money to purchase a gift. This present was supposed to be given to a woman that the boss was having an affair with, though he was married. Though the individual in question knew about this, he went ahead and paid for the gift for his boss. The two similar scenarios have elicited two contrasting responses. This therefore begs the question of where he stands as far as morality is concerned. The lack of consistence despite the situation is enough to support the fact that most people would appear moral only when they gain more pleasure in the event. However, if there is any loss perceived, one would rather compromise to safe their status quo. My point of view and premises for that position Cons istency in terms of how one responds to issues of morality within the society is imperative. This is especially on how one conducts him/herself towards the colleagues in the working environment. For one to be defined as morally upright, it would be necessary for them to appear predictable in all situations, in terms of their position on various social issues. Fear of losing certain favors because of one’s action or position should not arise. In the case of the of the individual in question, the fact that he agreed to do his boss a favor opens a door to further compromises in future. Through one would understand his reason for taking that compromising act, he failed to take initiative of rejecting. For instance, he did not offer his stand on the issue of unfaithfulness on the part of his boss. The fact that he assisted him in paying for the gift could be explained as ‘supporting such an act.’ Secondly, one would also say that his moral position is not grounded str ongly. He is swayed by circumstances which should not be the case provided one does what they think is right. For instance, why did he not fear losing friendship by not lending money to his friend? Secondly, why did he not choose to reciprocate the same act to his boss? The whole issue of morality lacks meaning if how one behaves is determined by pain and pleasure one may incur. One would be in a position to draw a line and say ‘this is right’ and ‘this is wrong’ despite the repercussions. The notion that he would be discharged of his duty by denying the favor to his boss is just a perception that is not based on reality. For instance, there are laws which protect employees from any unfair treatment. One can seek redress if they feel they are being harassed by their seniors. According to my position therefore, morality should have a specific definition and remain consistent in all scenarios regardless of the consequences. Support by other philosopher such a s John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham, John F. Cosby and Veatch. John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham seem to share similar sentiments as far as issues of morality are concerned. They raise two important social phenomena of pain and pleasure as the main determinants of how individuals behave in certain circumstances (Bentham 58). They indicate that what manners are the final result and not the means taken. Both of them agree on matters of personal happiness as what is imperative in deciding moral

Business and Professional Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business and Professional Ethics - Essay Example a company should be to maximise its profits and consequently return a part of these profits to the shareholder group as the reward and return for the risks that they have borne by investing their money in the company. Milton Friedman’s view advocates that the shareholders of a company can decide what social responsibilities they want to take part in. This report is prepared with the aim of evaluating the pros and cons of these arguments by referring to the theoretical works presented by different scholars and practitioners in this domain. The report is concluded by presenting a view as to whether the arguments presented by Friedman still hold ground in the current corporate world. The arguments proposed by Milton Friedman suggest that a company does not have to have any kind of social responsibility towards the community and society because the only concern of the company should be to increase its financial gains and returns for the shareholders who have invested in the company (Friedman, 1970). Nevertheless, as per the contemporary theories of business ethics and corporate social responsibility, focusing on giving back to the societies and communities in which the companies operate is a necessity for achieving sustainable competitive advantage. Also, the use of suitable corporate social responsibility initiatives is mandatory for ensuring that the company remains ethically, morally as well as socially compliant (Kerr, Janda and Pitts, 2009, pp. 22-25). As per the theory proposed by Friedman, the focus of the profit oriented businesses on adding value to the society may lead to totalitarianism which is a particular type of political system in which the  federal or state authorities have total control over the community and society and thus, seeks to control all the relevant aspects of both private and public lives whenever and wherever possible. But, it can be seen in the global corporate environment that totalitarianism as a political system does not prevail

Multivariate Data Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Multivariate Data Analysis - Assignment Example These variables need to be specified prior to setting up a structural model. The process through which these latent variables are decided is known as Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Thus, the measurement model for a CFA also comes in the form of a multivariate regression equation. However, CFA precedes SME since the exogenous variables included in an SME are determined through CFA. CFA and SME together form a measurement model and help in evaluating the underlying relationship between variables, with least measurement errors. An SEM generally consists of a number of multivariate equations which often leads to errors in recording the inputs. Hence the preferred form of input representation in an SEM should be through a covariance matrix with defined row and column names, so as to avoid confusion and errors in providing inputs. Post-estimation, there remains the task of assessing the fitness of the predicted model. Model fit implies the degree to which the estimated model can resemble the observed population model. Hence, the more that the observed covariance matrix corresponds to the estimated one, the better is the model fitness. Generally, model fit could be of two types – goodness of fit and badness of fit; in the former case, the estimated model is considered to be a good representation as the value of the statistic rises in contrast to what the defining factor should be in case of the badness of fit. Examples of the goodness of fit are GFI, CFI, and TLI and those of badness of fit are RMSEA and SRMR. However, there is no benchmark to evaluate the validity of the model based on the value of goodness of fit of the same. The only way-out would be to assess the goodness of fit by figuring out the same via multiple indices.

Why it is important for you to develop the philosophical mindset Essay

Why it is important for you to develop the philosophical mindset - Essay Example This is because those with the philosophical mindset not only evaluate claims, but arguments given to support claims. In this sense, philosophy has practical value for our everyday life. Many perceive philosophy as only having direct application within the university, where students contemplate the thoughts of long-dead intellectuals. But given the necessity of critical thinking and rational skepticism in all areas of life, including business, science, and politics, it seems philosophy is directly applicable to almost any kind of situation. Developing a philosophical mindset, however, is not limited to simply studying and doing well in philosophy courses. Rather, it is a matter of cultivating a general approach to life. Necessary to this general approach to life is having reasons (or empirical evidence) to support one’s knowledge and beliefs. To hold basic assumptions or opinions without evidence or without thought is the easiest way to base a life on

Art is a product of its context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Art is a product of its context - Essay Example This was the period after Mesolithic which was majorly dominated by human domestication of plants and animals. It was around 9000BCE when climate grew warmer and the ice that covered the north Europe melted separating England from continental Europe and Spain from Africa. Agriculture and animal husbandry became the human kind’s major source of food. This art was mainly manifested in two cultures; the Ancient Near East and the Europe. In the Ancient Near East, Neolithic art is presented by the widespread of agricultural activities among the communities that settled around foothills of the Antilebanon, Taurus and Zagros mountains in the present day Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran. These activities were motivated by the sufficient rain that occurred in these regions. The crops which they domesticated include wild wheat and barley while goats, sheep and pigs were some of the herds of animals they had. Due to the massive growth of wealth as a result of different agricultural activities in Jericho, security was paramount leading to the construction of a great stone tower built into the settlement wall of Jericho to protect them from the marauding nomads. This permanent stone fortification had an estimated population of 2000 people. This marked the beginning of the monumental architect. In Catal Hoyuk settlements, there were numerous excavations and different types of Neolithic set ups. Their source of wealth was trade which involved the use of obsidian stone which was chipped to make cutting tools and weapons.

Someone Who Inspires Me Essay Example for Free

Someone Who Inspires Me Essay There are so many people who have influenced my life, but the person that stands out the most is my grandmother. I call her my Nee because I couldn’t say â€Å"Grandma† when I started talking. She always is a happy person every time I see her; she always tries to make herself a better person no matter what. I look up to her every day, and I want to grow up and be respected like she is. She has influenced me by her actions to respect elders, respect my parents, and the most important one is to always have a smile on my face even when I’m down. Nee always tells me to respect my elders. She always leaves an impression to my eyes for the reason that she still respects her elders to this day. I can remember from day one that she always tells me to use my manners no matter who it is. I would always get in trouble for not saying â€Å"Yes Ma’am†, â€Å"No Sir†, â€Å"Please and Thank You†. When we go out in public she always sees someone she knows, and I will always catch her saying those words. Even if they aren’t older than her, she still uses her manners. I know she always reminds me to have respect because she will always compliment kids that use manners towards her. By her telling me that she loves and respects it when kids use manners, then I know the elders love and respect it when I use my manners. I get complimented all the time for having such great manners and I will always tell everyone that it’s all because of my grandmother. Respecting my parents is very important to her also. She always would tell me when I went over to her house to never be rude to my parents. They are the reason I am here today, and have such a fantastic life. I will ever forget the day when I had to go clean her house, because at a family outing I yelled at my parents for a dumb reason, and my grandma got mad. She told me that I had to come over for the weekend and she was going to teach me a valuable lesson about respecting my parents. I had to clean all the floors and windows, and let me tell you that was not enjoyable. I learned my lesson real quick and I would never yell at my parents again. My grandmother taught me that I am disobeying God by yelling at my parents. Nee always has a smile on her face no matter what her day been like. She is always a happy person and just brings a happy mood to the room. I look up to that greatly because I want to be happy all the time, and I want people to want to be around me. She would always tell me that nobody likes being around sad and gloomy people since it will just make them in that mood also. One weekend I was very cheerless and I walked into the room that had a joyful atmosphere, and then it just dropped to pure unhappiness. I could hear Nee inside my head telling me â€Å"People don’t like to be around others who are not cheerful†, and right then I changed my mood. I didn’t want to make those happy people all gloomy because I was; I wanted them to want to be around me. She would also tell me that going to church and worshiping The Lord will forever make you in such a joyful mood. I have gone to church since I was little, and every Sunday when I leave, I always have a smile on my face. As Nee continues to teach me respect and how to become a better person, her influence on me will just keep increasing significantly. Her teaching me to respect my elders no matter how old I am shows me that I still have to use my manner when I am an elder; because that’s how I want to be treated by younger people. She always will tell me that I need to respect my parents no matter what the situation is and to view the fact that one day they won’t be here and I’m going to be a parent. Last but not least, I always need to remember to have a smile on my face. I will always hear Nee tell me that nobody wants to be around depressing people, so I better turn that frown upside down. By Nee teaching me to respect elders, respect my parents, and always keep a smile on my face, I have no doubt that I will be an influence on someone else in the future.

Politics and Accounting Standards Essay Example for Free

Politics and Accounting Standards Essay Politics and Accounting Standards Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The growth of an enterprise is very important for both internal and external stakeholders. It can be expressed by showing the true and fair view of a company using the financial reports that shows the actual capital allocation of the enterprise. Therefore, financial accounting is very important and it enhances the success of the business. In this context, both the definition and the body that is involved in setting the standard are important in helping to understand clearly the meaning of financial accounting. Financial accounting is the process of preparing and establishing a report on the financial information of an enterprise (.Ball, Ray, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It also shows the true and fair view of the financial statements which are cash flow statement, balance sheet and profit and loss statement. These statements are very essential for the enterprise stakeholders. Financial accounting takes into consideration the management of the business for example, its assets, liabilities and capital(Ball, Ray, 2006). Furthermore, it states its real capital and debts to enable the enterprise stakeholder evaluate the performance of the business. The true and fair view of financial accounting can be achieved by following the rules and policies that govern the people setting the rules.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The rules or rather the standards apply internationally to help ensure that the accounting standards used across the world are uniform (Armstrong, et al 2010). These are the professional regulatory bodies that are responsible for setting the standards for example the International Accounting Standards (IAS), and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) among others. The board that is responsible for setting the standard is the Financial Accounting Standard Board (FASB) among other interested parties(Ball, Ray, 2006). FASB formulates a process that is followed so that it can be able to help in setting new accounting standards. First, the board has a duty to set up a committee that prepares an outline of the task at hand. Secondly, the committee board prepares the objectives for the board comments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After this, the board gives its view on the task outline and then passes it to the committee which in return prepares a discussion paper which entails the committee’s statement of the application proposal standards. Eventually, the committee also obtains views from interested parties and after their view is in the favor of the principle, they go ahead in drafting an exposure and the draft is then published as the IFRS(Ball, Ray, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order, for these standard to be effective and efficient, they are categorized into varies group therefore making it easy for the accounting. The IAS is classified into many classes for example,under the IAS 10, events that occur after the balance sheet date,should not be part of the balance sheet. Every company is required to prepare a balance sheet at the end of the year. Therefore, any entity trying to avoid or present a misleading financial statement is liable and the board provides the contents of the balance sheet. Under the IAS 19, which talks about retirement benefit costs, and the board takes into consideration the accounting of the benefits accruing from the retirement (Aboody, et a l 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The board has a duty to see that no corruption is being practiced and therefore, companies are required to show the true and fair value in terms of the retirement costs. This prevents corruption of the prominent politicians. The IAS 17talks about accounting for leases. It is very important for a company to account for every lease taken since it is a liability. This is made possible because the board provides policies and procedures to be followed in disclosure of the account on lease. Lease is an expense for the company and if not accounted for can lead to false financial statements (Aboody, et a l, 2004).Furthermore, IAS 33talks about earnings per share,whereby all the companies are required to show their profit in terms of profit earned from share. The earning per share is used to the performance of the company which is based on the shares. It is also important for the shareholders.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Most company and influential parties do not support this standard and therefore it is criticized.IAS 39 is a financial standard which requires that accounting should have recognitionand measurement of assets as well as liabilities. It states that all the entities should take into account of all the assets, liabilities and equity of the business and no relevant material should be left out(Ball, Ray, 2006). The profit, loss and capital should be stated as they appear without any alterations. The IFRS is also divided into classes but in this context, the IFRS 13 is considered. This standard is concerned with the true and fair value of an entity (Armstrong, et al 2010). Itrequires all the entities to state real profit or loss incurred in their financial reports. However, accounting is not sparedfrom criticism and the board experience pressure for different organization that are not in agreement with the standard. Political pressure is one of t he areas whichexert pressure on the board. The standards of accounting requires the organizations or the enterprise to show the true and fair view of the performance of the business (.Ball, Ray,2006).Due to this, most business operating under a loss stand a chance to be wound up and there will be no investors interested in the business.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The political pressure that is experienced under the various accounting standards is in terms of legislations which they politicians enact. Some of the legislations contradict the accounting standards whereby businesses in a certain country are required to follow certain regulations in addition to the IAS and IFRS. This creates pressure on companies to try and evade the application of the IAS and IFRS in their reporting. The accounting standards are set to helpindicate the real performance of the business and therefore many world trading entities are affected by this since the competitors are in watch (.Ball, Ray,2006). The amendment of the standard brought about the reclassification of the IFRS and IAS so as to favor the entities that make losses in trading.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It has been noted that politicians own businesses across the world and closely monitor their businesses the best way they can so that they can make more profits (Armstrong, et al 2010). Therefore, considering that the politicians have the capacity of adjusting the laws on businesses as they deem right, there is likelihood that the policies that they will formulate do not match or support the accounting standards available (.Ball, Ray,2006). What this means is that there will be a lot of pressure on the accounting standards in terms of trying to ensure that the politician-owned businesses adhere to the reporting standards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The other way through which politics may put pressure on the various accounting standards listed and discussed above is through the selection of the board members to the FASB (Armstrong, et al 2010). Politicians using their powers on formulation of policies may be inclined to have people in the board that will take care of their personal interest by formulating standards which are not supportive of all businesses equally. This means that whenever there are new standards to be introduced which can be beneficial to the whole business world, the politicians will always influence the final decisions that the board will make pertaining to the new accounting standards (Aboody, et a l 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The other issue which is part of the political pressure and interference with the standards is that of political incentives, whichthe major reason for the reclassification of the accounting standards. It is to be noted that the growth of country’seconomy is important but in case where the growth does not reflect the true economic situation, the information shown does not indicate the true and fair values of economy (Aboody, et a l 2004). The same case applies to banks which hold government equity and using the reclassified standards will not show the true and fair value. Therefore, when politicians offer incentives to the board members through corrupt ways and with intentions of promoting their interests, the pressure on the standards continue to mount hence prevents the proper application of the standards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Therefore, in conclusion on the effects of politics and politicians on the formulation and application of the financial accounting standards, it can be noted that there is need to prevent political interference on the FASB as well as other regulatory bodies which formulate the standards. The accounting standards are quite important in ensuring proper and accurate information which can be relied upon is produced and reported by companies and organizations. References Aboody, D., M. E. Barth, and R. Kasznik. 2004. Firms’ voluntary recognition of stockbasedCompensation expense. Journal of Accounting Research 42: 123-160. Armstrong, Christopher S./Barth, Mary E./Jagolinzer, Alan D./Riedl, Edward J. (2010). Market Reaction to the Adoption of IFRS in Europe.The Accounting Review, Vol. 85, No. 1, pp.31–61. Ball, Ray (2006). International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS): pros and cons for investors. Accounting and Business Research, Vol. 36, Special Issue, pp. 5–27. Source document